The respiratory pathogen named Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in December 2019 and escalated into a global pandemic by March 2020. By September 2025, more than 7 million deaths had occurred worldwide due to the resulting disease, COVID-19. The clinical manifestations of COVID-19 are wide, ranging from asymptomatic infection to severe conditions resulting in pneumonia and leading to death.
Factors such as the variant type of SARS-CoV-2, the inoculum size, previous exposures, and host factors all play a role in determining the clinical course of the disease. Valuable insights into the pathophysiology of the immune response to infection and the identification of pivotal structural proteins of the virus have steered the development of beneficial preventive measures. These include vaccines and monoclonal antibodies, as well as therapeutic agents like antivirals and immunomodulatory agents.
Certain antiviral agents, such as remdesivir and nirmatrelvir-ritonavir, work by inhibiting viral replication, while immunomodulatory agents, including tocilizumab and baricitinib, play a role in diminishing a dysregulated immune response to the virus.
The COVID-19 pandemic has had profound economic and socio-cultural impacts, affecting individuals’ quality of life and life expectancy on a grand scale. As we transition out of the emergency phase of the pandemic, it is crucial that strong monitoring and surveillance systems be upheld and research be continued to enhance the efficacy of vaccines and therapeutic agents. This will enable control of SARS-CoV-2 in the population and help prepare us for emerging pathogens with potential pandemic capabilities.